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Notes 1. All quotations are from The Riverside Chaucer, 3rd ed., gen. ed. Larry D. Benson (Boston, 1987).
2. See Alan T. Gaylord, "Sentence and Solaas in Fragment VII of the Canterbury Tales: Harry Bailly as Horseback Editor," PMLA 82 (1967), 226-35.
3. For a discussion of the Canterbury pilgrimage as "metaphor" for the journey of humanity, the societas peregrina, see Ralph Baldwin, The Unity of The Canterbury Tales, Anglistica 5, eds. Torsten Dahl, Kemp Malone, and Geoffrey Tillotson (Copenhagen, 1955), pp. 27-31, 90-93, 96. See also Donald R. Howard, Writers and Pilgrims: Medieval Pilgrimage Narratives and Their

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Posterity (Berkeley, 1980), pp. 6-7, 11, 78-79, 97, 121; and Edmund Reiss, "The Pilgrimage Narrative and the Canterbury Tales," Studies in Philology 67 (1970), 295-305. Baldwin believes the metaphor "never hardens into allegory" (p. 96). Nevertheless, I use the term "allegory" in a general sense following D. W. Robertson: "There is no point, therefore, in seeking to differentiate between actions which are allegorical' and things which are symbolic.' Allegory is simply the device of saying one thing to mean another, and its ulterior meaning may rest on things or on actions, or on both together" (A Preface to Chaucer: Studies in Medieval Perspectives [Princeton, 1962], p. 300). Furthermore, "allegorical" meaning, as one of the four levels of interpretation, refers to the condition of the pilgrim Church in the world.
4. See Bernard F. Hupp‚, A Reading of the Canterbury Tales (New York, 1964), pp. 6, 15, 20; Robertson, Preface, p. 373; Frederick Jonassen, "The Inn, the Cathedral, and the Pilgrimage of The Canterbury Tales," in Revels and Rivals: The Contestive Spirit in The Canterbury Tales, eds. Susanna Greer Fein, David Raybin, and Peter C. Braeger (Kalamazoo, 1991), pp. 1-35; and Charles P. R. Tisdale, "The Medieval Pilgrimage and Its Use in The Canterbury Tales" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1970), 46-60. For a general discussion of the pilgrimage metaphor, including Augustine's use of the motif, see F. C. Gardiner, The Pilgrimage of Desire: A Study of Theme and Genre in Medieval Literature (Leiden, 1971), pp. 11-15; and Gerhart B. Ladner, "Homo Viator: Mediaeval Ideas on Alienation and Order," Speculum 42 (1967), 233-59. 5. Chaucer's Conversion: Allegorical Thought in Medieval Literature, Aspekte der englischen Geistesund Kulturgeschichte Bd. 2 (Frankfurt am Main and New York, 1984), pp. 13-73.
6. A Reading of the Canterbury Tales (Cambridge, 1968), p. 234.
7. Nebuchadnezzar's Children: Conventions of Madness in Middle English Literature (New Haven and London, 1974), pp. 7-10.
8. City of God, trans. Henry Bettenson (London, 1984).
9. "The Inn," pp. 3-4. See also Reiss, "Pilgrimage Narrative," p. 301.
10. The Vision of Piers Plowman: A Complete Edition of the B-Text, ed. A. V. C. Schmidt (London, 1989), Prol. 11-19.
11. Curiosity and Pilgrimage: The Literature of Discovery in Fourteenth-Century England (Baltimore and London, 1976), p. 124.
12. See Exodus 16.3 and Numbers 11.5, 18-20, 14.1-4, 16.13.
13. See Genesis 19.17, 26.
14. "The Hevenlich Mede in Chaucer's Truth,'" Modern Language Notes 68 (1953), 534-35.
15. Piers Plowman relates the Good Samaritan's haste toward the Heavenly City in a similar way: " For I may noght lette,' quod that leode and lyard he bistrideth, / And raped hym to Jerusalemward the righte wey to ryde" (17.80-81) and " I may no lenger lette!' quod he, and lyard he prikede, / And wente awey as wynd and therwith I awakede" (17.352-53, emphasis mine).
16. See Robert A. Pratt, "Some Latin Sources of the Nonnes Preest on Dreams,"

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Speculum 52 (1977), 538-70, at 548-51, 555. Pratt discusses the sources for this passage: Cicero's De divinatione, 1.57, Valerius Maximus's Facta et dicta memorabilia, 1.7, Albertus Magnus's De somno et vigilia, 3.1.10, and Robert Holcot's version of Valerius in the Book of Wisdom commentary, Super Sapientiam Salomonis.
17. Petrarch's De obedientia ac fide uxoria mythologia and the French translation, Le livre Griseldis; see Robert P. Miller, ed., Chaucer: Sources and Backgrounds (New York, 1977), pp. 140-52.
18. See Roger Ellis, Patterns of Religious Narrative in the Canterbury Tales (Totowa, 1986), p. 277; and Beryl Rowland, Blind Beasts: Chaucer's Animal World (Kent, 1971), p. 145. Robertson mentions the ox's stall as a significant "motif" but does not elaborate (Preface, p. 366). Christ's life was portrayed as a pilgrimage in Guillaume de Deguileville's Le pelerinage Jhesucrist (ed. J. J. Strzinger [London 1897]), and the beginning of his life-journey is reported in the Gospel of Luke whose symbol is the ox. At the end of this gospel is the Emmaus journey (24.13-35), which was popularly connected with medieval pilgrimage. Further, the ox as a sacrificial animal is associated with Christ; see Louis Charbonneau-Lassay, The Bestiary of Christ, trans. D. M. Dooling (New York, 1991), p. 20; and David E. Lampe, "The Truth of a Vache': The Homely Homily of Chaucer's Truth,'" Papers on Language and Literature 9 (1973), 311-14, at p. 313.
19. See Donald R. Howard, The Idea of the Canterbury Tales (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1976), p. 163.
20. See G. R. Owst, Literature and Pulpit in Medieval England: A Neglected Chapter in the History of English Letters and of the English People, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1961), p. 435. 21. Dan Michel's Ayenbite of Inwyt, or, Remorse of Conscience, ed. R. Morris, EETS 23 (1866; repr. London, 1895).
22. See Owst, Literature and Pulpit, pp. 436-37, 440-41; and also Jonassen, "The Inn," pp. 12-13.
23. See Matthew 7.13-14; Luke 13.24; and John 10.7, 9.
24. S. Gregorii Magni Moralia in Job, ed. Marcus Adriaen, 3 vols., CCSL 143-143B (Turnhout, 1979-1985), 8.54.92; and see Julia Bolton Holloway, The Pilgrim and the Book: A Study of Dante, Langland and Chaucer, rev. ed., American University Studies Series 4, English Language and Literature 42 (New York, 1992), p. 68 and p. 82 note 21. 25. Holloway, The Pilgrim and the Book, p. 121.